Crusades From the 11th to 13th Century

Crusades From the 11th to 13th Century Account for enthusiasm for crusading from the 11th to the 13th century. The following will discuss, evaluate, and account for the enthusiasm for crusading from the 11th through to the 13th century. Crusading was the name given to the attempts of Western European Christians to regain the lands and the territories in the Middle East lost due to the advance of Islamic forces. The lands, which the varying crusading forces, were primarily interested in regaining from Islamic control were those territories within the Holy Land, especially Jerusalem. All these territories had formally been under Christian control as part of the Byzantine Empire, which had once dominated the Middle East. At the start of the 11th century the Byzantine Empire still remained the dominant power in the Balkans and other parts of Eastern Europe. The Byzantine Empire had not been able to halt the advance of Islamic forces from the late 7th century and had not received any military or naval assistance that had halted the Islamic incursions from Western Europe. Although politically divid ed Western Europe was overwhelming Christian in religious terms with the papacy holding a great deal of influence over religious beliefs even if it could not exercise political power? As will be discussed below the original motivations for launching the crusades were primarily religious and those motivations continued from the 11th century through to the 13th century. The religious beliefs and views of the Western Europeans had a strong upon their enthusiasm for crusading and their subsequent behaviour towards both Muslims and the Orthodox Christians they came in to contact with. For the papacy and indeed for many of the Christians within Western Europe the occupation of the Holy Land by Muslims was an intolerable situation which needed to be reversed so that those territories would once again come under Christian control, as they had been part of the Byzantine Empire. Although the Muslims allowed Christian pilgrims to visit the Holy Land and permitted freedom of worship to the Christians and the Jews who still lived there, that did not lower Western European enthusiasm for taking the Holy Land out of Muslim hands. The way in which the crusades were conducted provided ample proof that the religious fervour of the Roman Catholic church which did the most to stimulate support for the crusades was highly intolerant of Islam and Eastern Orthodox Christianity alike. The actual fact Muslims had control of these lands was bitterly resented by the Christians of Western Europe in general, and the Papacy in particular. There was a prevailing sense that this situation w as unacceptable and only a temporary sign of weakness within Christianity was a continuous source of enthusiasm for crusading (Roberts, 1996, p. 158). Whilst the Muslims still controlled part or all of the Holy Land then enthusiasm for starting and then continuing the crusades was always likely to remain strong. The strong religious beliefs and dare it be said, prejudices were deeply held within Western Europe between the 11th and 13th centuries, with the result that the crusades remained popular as did the urge to carry on crusading. The first crusade would provide enough momentum to inspire a further three crusades in the period as well as the establishment of crusader kingdoms in the Holy Land. The crusades would heighten the conflict between Western Christianity; it also soured its relationship with the Byzantine Empire and the Eastern Orthodox churches, culminating in the disastrous fourth crusade and the sack of Constantinople (Angold, 1997, p.10). The Papacy started the enthusiasm for crusading experienced in Western Europe between the 11th and 13th centuries. The first crusade was directly inspired by Pope Urban II who asked for those Western Christians that were capable of going to the Middle East to assist the Byzantine Empire against the expansion of Islamic power in that region should do so (Norwich, 1997, p.256). Urban II’s appeal for people to join the first crusade gained recruits from right across Western Europe. The crusading urge meant that people from states that were rivals or even enemies joined together to fight the Muslims that controlled the Holy Land. The first crusade was truly a multinational fighting force, as were the next three crusades (Connell, 2001, p.8). Urban II’s message that all future crusaders were doing God’s bidding was an astute means of developing and maintaining an enthusiasm for crusading between the 11th and 13th centuries. It was a message that both the Papacy and se cular authorities were more than happy to convey throughout this period (Norwich, 1997 p. 256). The Papacy contended that the crusaders would not only be assured of heavenly treasures during their own after life, the crusaders would be rewarded with earthly treasures as well in their lives before death. For some of those individuals that took part in the crusades the opportunity to gain treasures and their own lands as a result of participation in the crusading campaigns was a greater cause for strong enthusiasm than any other form of motivation. Greed was therefore a strong and virtually continuous factor in the development and the continuing of enthusiasm for crusading between the 11th and 13th centuries. That greed made those that joined the crusades just as dangerous to the Eastern Orthodox Christians of the Middle East as they were to the Muslims who lived in the region (Norwich, 1997 p.257). Indeed, when the crusaders did manage to take land away from the Muslims within the Middle East, the victorious crusaders would set up their own separate kingdoms. The crusader kingdo ms were demonstrations of the greed and the pretensions of the crusaders themselves, the territories that they took control of should have been restored to the Byzantine Empire. If the crusaders had genuinely wished to contain Islamic power within the Middle East region, and aimed to keep the Holy Land under Christian control they would restored Byzantine power in these areas. Arguably a Byzantine Empire that had its Middle East territories restored as a result of the crusades would have been in a better position to keep the Holy Land in Christian hands. It is highly doubtful though if returning all regained territories to the control of the Byzantine Empire would have generated so much enthusiasm for crusading between the 11th and 13th centuries (Roberts, 1996 p. 158). The military and territorial successes of the first crusade was a strong factor in the development and the subsequent maintenance of widespread popular enthusiasm for crusading campaigns between the 11th century through to the 13th century. The forces of the first crusade were able to take possession of Jerusalem away from Muslim control, alongside the Lebanon, and much of Syria. The brutality of the Western European crusader armies during the first crusade made a lasting impression upon the Islamic populations within the Middle East. The onset of the crusades only increased the desire of the Muslim powers within the Middle East region to regain and maintain control of the Holy Land as well as all the other territories lost to the crusaders (Lenman, 2004 p. 214). The crusader kingdoms that were established after the apparent success of the first crusade kept the concept of crusading to the fore front of Western European thought, mainly as a means of recruiting knights and soldiers th at were needed to defend the crusader kingdoms. Knights and soldiers were needed to garrison the forts and to resist the Muslim forces that were relentlessly advancing into the crusaders territory Norwich, 1997 p. 257). The crusader kingdoms did not have enough financial resources and, enough soldiers to maintain their resistance to increasingly powerful and well led Muslim forces for prolonged periods of time. The basic Muslim military strategy was to pick off the crusader kingdoms one by one. The crusader kingdoms were not as well supported from Western Europe as strongly as they would have liked. That lack of substantial levels of support from the crusaders Western European supporters made it easier for the Muslim forces within the Middle East to conquer the territories which they had lost as a result of the first crusade (Roberts, 1996 p. 158). Ironically enough, it was the failure of the crusader kingdoms to survive the successful counter attacks of the Muslim forces within the Middle East region that prompted renewed enthusiasm for crusading. That enthusiasm resulted in the second, third, and fourth crusades throughout the remainder of the period between the 11th and the 13th century. Over all the recruitment drives to persuade people to participate in the crusades were successful, whilst the crusades themselves were military failures as they ultimately failed to restore Christian control over the Holy Land. However the launch of these crusades was a success in terms of ensuring that those crusading remained able to be highly enthusiastic about playing a role in the subsequent conflicts between the crusaders and the Muslim forces. The majority of people in Western Europe had generally held a great deal of confidence in the second crusade being every bit as successful as the first crusade had been. The popular enthusiasm f or crusading during the 11th century and through to the 13th century was assisted by the high levels of confidence that people had in the ability of the crusaders to achieve their objectives (Angold, 1997 p.194). Potentially, at least the third crusade was a campaign that would finally end Muslim control of the Holy Land once and for all. The crusaders were certainly confident of success. The third crusade could also be used to argue that there were significant levels of enthusiasm for crusading as it offered prospects for crusaders to become famous as well as rich. Going on a crusade could allow the individual crusaders the opportunity to enhance their reputations for being brave, being a good military commander, or being a devout defender of the Christian faith. For these reasons, kings, prince’s, and knights were frequent participants in the crusades. In the case of the third crusade, the most notable individual taking part was the English king Richard I, who earned the ni ckname of Richard the Lion heart (Angold, 1997 p. 178). By the time of the fourth crusade in 1204, popular enthusiasm for the practice of crusading still seemed to be very strong. However, the fourth crusade also clearly demonstrated that crusading was more concerned with greed and an increasing dislike of the Eastern Orthodox churches as it was about gaining control of the Holy Land. Instead of improving the position of the Byzantine Empire, the fourth crusade actually reduced it as a consequence of the sacking of Constantinople. The sack of Constantinople was ample demonstration that greed and prejudice were factors that created, developed, and maintained enthusiasm for crusading, as much as religious beliefs and a unmistakable belief of superiority over other religious faiths. There would be further less sustained and much smaller crusades that proved just as incapable as the four main crusades of removing Muslim control of the Holy Land. Ironically enough Jerusalem was briefly regained for Christianity in 1229 by the forces of the Hol y Roman Emperor Frederick II. His personal crusade had been launched to persuade the Papacy to remove the excommunication order against him. The Christian control of Jerusalem was only a short-term success; it was lost to Muslim forces in 1244 (Roberts, 1996 p. 159). Therefore, to conclude there were various factors that explain how and why there was a great deal of enthusiasm for crusading from the 11th century, right through to the end of the 13th century in the countries of Western Europe. The primary inspiration for starting the crusading process had been religious, and religious fervour was a constant reason for maintaining enthusiasm for crusading campaigns throughout the period. The divisions within Christianity has previously allowed the Muslims to gain control not only of the Holy Land, but the bulk of the Middle East, with the Byzantine Empire showing increasing signs of weakness. It was the Papacy under the guidance of Urban II that developed the concept of the crusades as a means of regaining control of the Holy Land and slowing down the decline of the Byzantine Empire. Enthusiasm was bases on the combination of religious fervour, the search for personal fame and fortune, factors that easily maintained popular support for crusading th roughout this period. Greed and religious prejudices were also strong influences in the brutal behaviour of the crusaders who excused their actions by arguing that restoring the Holy Land to Christian control merited earthly as well as heavenly rewards. Bibliography Angold M, (1997) The Byzantine Empire, 1025 – 1204, Longman, London Connell E S, (2001) Deus Lo Volt, a chronicle of the crusades, Pimlico, London Lenman, (2004) Chamber’s Dictionary of World History, Chambers, Edinburgh Norwich J, (1997) A Short History of Byzantium, Viking, London Roberts J.M, (1996) A History of Europe, Penguin, London and New York

History of Weapon Essay

A weapon simply means a device or a tool that is used to inflict injury upon opponents. It is used with application of effort manually or through electronic automation for the purpose of attack or defense in war. It could also be aimed at rendering the enemy’s weapons powerless by destroying their weapon with a superior gadget (Anthony1988). The simple force that is applied produces such a magnified effort that is capable of causing injury along the directed path. In the ages, weapon takes many forms on a chronological annul of history depending on technological advancement and discovery update in applied science. Most weapons used are designed purposefully to perform a particular task by the manufacturer in an engaging war or execution plan where there is no war. The simplicity of weapon model can appear in form of a club or taking form of a ballistic multipurpose missile with such a huge destructive capacity. Philosophically, there is an interesting side to the definition of the material weapon. Weapon is often metaphorically described as any means through which damage can be executed upon intended opposition party (Anthony1988). This means we could have a psychological weapon, a social weapon and other non physical tools. In more modern times, there has been development of non-deadly weapon by the paramilitary or security men for a mere incapacitation of targeted subject. Its advantage is found useful in a situation where criminal activities is rarely involved or to prevent accompanying damage to property and physical environments when used. In this study, we shall demonstrate how events over time led to technological advancement in weapon development from historical lane, paying more emphasis from the middle ages to the present days. Brief Review of Historical Weapons Figure 1: Picture displays arrays of bracelets, axe heads, chisels, and polishing tools (Anthony 1988). About 5 million years ago, a researcher in the University of Southern California demonstrated that chimpanzees communities are first to use â€Å"spears† as a weapon (Rick 2007). Following this is the use mystery is the deduction that primitive hominids must have equally used â€Å"clubs and staves† s weapon of war within their community (Craig 1776). The evolution of conflicts among man in fight for supremacy began with the use of modified primitive weapons used by hominids. Man also used this weapon to hunt in a wide bush for possession and the driving away of wild inhabitants of the deep forest. In the early years of human history is found the use of axes fashioned with strong stones as weapons to make attack. The archeologist discovered the use of earliest cache camping â€Å"wooden spears known as schoninger speere† (Hartmut 1997). This is dated to as far back as four hundred thousand years ago. The stone fashioned axes were soon replaced by fire-hardened materials around. Bow and arrow is comparative recent and dated to about sixty thousands years back The use of wooden darts is dated to the era of mid-Paleolithic age (Jill 2007 ). Weapons used in The Middle Ages (Early 19th Century) Figure 2: A Cannon in Ancient London The middle age is also known as the medieval era. Historical advancement in weapons can be categorized into inventories on weapons not in prehistoric existence and inventories in terms of modifications on the existing weapons for a better performance. Dominating the desire for advanced weapons was born out of the need for faster, more fulfilling and deadlier weapons. Middle ages weapon by far is a show of development military technological advancement over the ancient weapons. The significance of this development is in the improvement in the force applied in relation to the destructive measure achieved. Weapons are now developed to perform a closer specific action without unnecessary invasion of large volume of land. This was a major revolutionary record in the history of military achievements in the middle ages. Over the use of armed chariots and spoke wheel which lost importance in the fourth century, the medieval period was characterized with the use of two weapons. The middle age weapons development was noted for knights and cannon. Knights, an evolved technological advancement over ancient cavalry, are heavily armed horse ridden soldiers with developing military operation that negates the use of castle. There was development of large caliber gun powder called cannon. Cannons had a more technologically advancement in historical findings (Jill 2007). A form of cannon is a heavy artillery weapon that is large enough to required mounting for firing. It is used on a warship and tracked vehicle. It is also more recently used, it is a rapid firing gun mounted on aircraft during air combat. Historically, medieval weapons are indeed a true evolution over what has been in existence earlier. Weapons are made with technologically skilled military personnel themselves who have witnessed the need for exact perfection over outdating weaponry tools. Ever since this inventory time, human being cannot forget the importance of paying close attention to weaponry industries in the role of killing. Most early technological advancement in weapon is in the area of rebranding metallic tools (Jill 2007). Steels crafting provides advancement over iron tool in that there is advantage of pliability, durability and more sharpened edges that kills faster with minimally applied effort. The prehistoric use of simple weapons like sword and catapults during personal fight evolved into a refined iron alloy (steel) in producing some materials and others like arrows and axes. Still an advancement of steel is the melting process that increases steel characteristic qualities to give increasing satisfaction of flexibility and light-weighted weapons. In middle ages of history, the little sword of prehistoric tools was not left over in the technological advancement that evolves over time in weaponry. There is stronger building materials for sword, the attached blade now has sharper edges and less likely to brake or bend in fierce use and above all, there exist flexibility in swinging to the direction of desired target to kill (Rick 2007). As part of a community war pride in the middle age was the possession of technologically advanced sword of a caucus over the order. Second to this is the experience of man power in their usage over time. The shaping took change into wide flat bladed sword with a guarding close to the handle. These were the technological advancement that caught up with sword in the middle age era. Others include the sharp pointing end that made it potent when forcefully thrust on an enemy at a distance before close contact. During the advancement, there was also the arrival of â€Å"bastard sword† in the fourteenth century. The potent weapon can be maneuver with a single hand, having a narrower and sharply pointing end that accomplished ultimate killing at a distance thrust. Evolutionary advancement was also recorded for bows and catapults. Producers became more proficient in crafting suiting tool that can increase swift killing thus, making advancement over older fashion (Rick 2007). The trend was historical advancement in the production of crossbows to a later substitution with long bows. More inventory techniques increase the production speed in order to outrun enemies’ arsenal and armory. The success of technological advancement is also in the place of speed and accuracy. The deadlier catapult was also part of the discovery credited to advancement in technology. Examples were â€Å"ballista and mangonels† advancement with the evolution of â€Å"trebuchet†. The trebuchet is a medieval siege engine with a sling attached to a wooden arm for flinging large stones with great projectile. Some version could be that effective as to throw over three hundred pounds or stone. With the increasing requirement by war men, trebuchet indeed was a significant advancement over catapults in the middle age by lifting the older approach in castle war with more siege capturing. Weapons in the Pre-Modern Age The rebirth of weapons into modernized tools is peaked in the invention of sophisticated firearms. There was notable advancement in the approach to battle field with the production of early guns and rocket-propelled weapons. The advancement here is such a resounding one as it touched the basis of energy transfer. Firearms qualitatively improve over other previous weapon in that the energy is not transferred by the tensile string or weighty object but by simple particles – gunpowder or other combustible explosives. The rapidity of energy transfer is also remarkably outstanding over earlier weapons. There is no time lagging in recoiling requirement when compared to primitive weapons. Firearms were markedly used during 16th to 19th centuries where there were several moments of ongoing conflict among nations. Notable conflicts that result into war during this era were proliferation of many European nations in the establishment of empires without official ceding. Some of the newly formed European federation survived with the won battle aided by evolution of firearms. Firearm continually received efficient development with more effortless triggering ignition to initiate firearm shot. Another beneficiary of technological advancement during early modern age is the U. S. Civil War against proliferated Federation of United State. This war featured the use of machine gun and ironclad warship. Up till today, these tools still find their relevance in the military armory. Armored ships also advance in the substitution of fueling with fossil fuel. These age equally witness rifle development over sword. This invention was an icon in the revolutionary history of military technological advancement quest. Shortly we enter the industrial age where we had advancement in the escalation of aircraft and armored tanks. There was not a significant improvement on the land combat weapons. Technological Improvement of Weapons in The Modern Age Figure 3. Soldier handling Machine Gun The beginning of 20th Century was welcome with cruel war between India and French where there is virtually absence of mechanically driven weapon for rifle weaponry. This era is often referred to â€Å"The Age of Rifles† since the least weapon used in battle field is reduced to rifle. Foot soldiers used rifle and canon for combat. Furthermore, there was the introduction of more mechanized weapons like machine gun with high capacity to shoot at distance. Other notable technological advancements in this era were aircraft carriers supplied for naval warfare. The evaluation of weapon inventories with important chronological event in this period would make one conclude that World War I heralded a full industrial revolution. More so, weapons modern proliferated at a higher rate with skilled technology without compromise on standard. The evolution of biotechnology also birthed chemical and biological weapons during this age. The availability of motor vehicle is also significant in the record of technological advancement since this aid weapons’ maneuvering during war as opposed to footing in the earlier centuries. Ever since the time of World War II, the evolution of more mechanized and sophisticated weapons set a standard for the rest of military advancement. This poised the invention of atomic bomb during this time (1939 to 1945). Post World War II Technological Improvement on Weapons The immediate war post WWII was cold war. During this period, the technological advancement peaked with the nations boosting of nuclear power that can destroy the world within few seconds. The drive continues in the invention of weapons of mass destruction and counter weapons. Another recent technological advancement in weaponry is the introduction of ballistic missile known as Intercontinental Ballistic Missile (ICBM). There was also the development of hydrogen bomb and other war missiles. Despite many conflict of interests, the basis of existing peace among nations is sometimes traced to mutual possession of these nuclear power and ICBM by the two powerful war giants. There exist an atmosphere of peaceful comport since a breach in peace could lead to proportional destruction. The peak of technological advancement in the invention of nuclear weapons almost made its discovery useless since the achieved destruction through them is highly non specific at targeted enemy. It use could return the world back into the historic era where economic crisis dealt on the world sequel to WWII destruction. The proposed loss with the use of nuclear power would be rather more devastating. It is vital to further point out the invention of computerized weapons few years back. It aids precision and accuracy of target. Two notable ones are â€Å"precision-guided munitions and computer-aided tank rounds†. Furthermore, the present modern age with ICT and other developments in the 21st century, helped improves on night vision through goggles gadget that is technologically powered to see clearly at night like day vision. This is important among land combatant in a strange environment. Identification of target at long distance is equally now possible with the weaponry tools of high technological surveillance gadget and automated aerial. Modern communication enhancement also contribute immensely to effective coordination of weapons and controllers, hence, Information technology advancement has brought tremendous improvement to weaponry (U. S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment 1995). In conclusion, chronological history of weapon technology improvements from the Middle Ages to the present day has demonstrated vast growth in man search to possess power and protect it with unending weaponry development every century. It is not unlikely for technologist to soon invent the mother of all advancements in weapon engineering considering the need for competitive possession of power and acquisition of protective gadgets with the most sophisticated version in a dynamic global village. Works Cited Anthony, Isaac. Understanding Physics and Weapon of War (1988). New York: Barnes & Noble. p. 88. Hartmut Thieme. Lower Palaeolithic hunting spears from Germany. Letters to Nature. Nature 385, 807 – 810 (27 February 1997). Hind, Edward, My Magazine: Being a Series of Poems, Tales, Sketches, Essays, Orations, Etc. ,: The Present Age – An oration J. and H. Clarke, London, 1860. Jill D. Pruetz1 and Paco Bertolani, Savanna Chimpanzees, Pan troglodytes verus, Hunt with Tools†, Current Biology, March 6, 2007 Medieval Weapon History – An Evolution in Killing. Site Available at: www. medieval-castle-siege-weapons. com Pijush Roy, Paul, Akshoy, Sanchayan Mukherjee. Mechanical Sciences:Engineering Mechanics and Strength of Materials (2005). Prentice Hall of India. p. 215.

The Civil Rights Act Of 1964 - 843 Words

Attracting and retaining the best talent requires an organization’s dedication to, responsibility for and accountability towards a healthy and diverse work force. Due to the international focus, cultural elements and global mission of the organization, Peace Mantle’s executive team is committed not only to attracting and retaining a talented and diverse team of individuals offering an invaluable set of experiences, perspectives and backgrounds, but to enhancing this collaborative effort by creating a culture of ease, respect and appreciation. In the spirit of Peace Mantle’s corporate commitment to best practices in the area of diversity and inclusion, and the desire of its executive officers, supervisors and managers to implement these practices in order to experience the full value of an intelligent and diverse team, this policy brief presents the background, research and recommendations on religious holiday leave. 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Leader Member Exchange Theory Leadership Essay - 1430 Words

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